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A Glossary following the Appendices provides definitions of computing terms. For complete technical details about any feature of the Commodore 128, consult the Commodore 128 Programmer’s Reference Guide. C64 Mode ln C64 Mode, the Commodore 128 operates exactly like a Commodore 64 computer, allowing you to take full advantage of the wide range of available C64 software. You also have full compatibility with all C64 peripherals. Switching Between Modes The following chart tells you how to switch to one mode from another. Function Keys. 3-10 Displaying Graphic Characters.3-10 Rules for Typing BASIC Language Programs. Program Mode ln program mode you enter a set of instructions that perform a specific task. Using BASIC is essentially the same in both C64 and C128 modes. This means that everything you type is in capital letters. To. This is called an “ Error Message.” Appendix A lists the error messages and tells how to correct the errors. NOTE: the examples given in this book, the following symbol indicates that you must press the RETURN key: Shift There are two SHIFT keys on the bottom row of the keyboard. Then type in the corrections. You can also type directly on top of undesired characters, then use INST to add any needed space. Control The Control key is used with other keys to do special tasks called control functions. You can display the left graphic character while the keyboard is in either character set. Rules for Typing BASIC Language Programs You can type and use BASIC language programs even without knowing BASIC. Try typing this on your Commodore 128: PRINTS Then press the RETURN key. Notice the number 5 is now displayed on the screen. You can change colors easily. All you do is hold down the CTRL key and press a numbered key between one and. Hold down the Commodore key and press a numbered key between one and eight, and eight additional colors are displayed on the screen. http://dalycity.com/wysiwygfiles/crosman-788-bb-scout-manual.xml

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The Commodore 128 prints 10 blank lines, and on the eleventh line, it prints “ DOWN HERE”. As this example shows, you can tell the computer to print anywhere on your screen by using the cursor control keys inside quotation marks. The computer prints the words COMMODORE 128. This is not the same as using the PRINT command in DIRECT mode. What has happened here is that YOU HAVE JUST WRITTEN AND RUN YOUR FIRST BASIC PROGRAM as small as it may seem. The color selection characters, known as control characters, in the PRINT statement in line 10 tell the Commodore 128 to change colors. The computer then prints the characters that follow in the new color until another color selection character is encountered. Try this example. Clear the computer’s memory by typing NEW and pressing RETURN. Then type: 10 ? “ MY 128 IS GREAT” 3-19. Just move the cursor so that it is blinking on the “ 1 ” in 128.This is the symbol that the Commodore 128 uses for multiplication.Using Parentheses to Define the Order of Operations You can tell the Commodore 128 which mathematical operation you want performed first by enclosing that operation in parentheses in the PRINT command. There is a part of the computer’s BASIC memory that is reserved for the characters (numbers, letters and symbols) you use in your program. You can mix text with constants in a PRINT statement to identify them.To do this, you’ll need either a Commodore disk drive or the Commodore 1530 Datassette. The Commodore 128 has two kinds of formatting commands. One can be used only in C128 mode, and one can be used in both C64 and C128 mode. You cannot put two programs with the same name on the same disk. If you do, the second program will not be accepted; the disk will retain the first one.You can use the counter on the Datassette to identify the starting position of the programs. DVERIFY“ PROGRAM NAME” RFTUHN If the program in the computer is identical to the one on the disk, the screen display will respond with the letters “. http://gdctogo.com/mae/mm/crosman-air-17-manual.xml

When an IF condition is false, the computer jumps to the next line of the program, no matter what comes after the word THEN. There is a simpler way to do this in BASIC. We call this the ability to interact with the computer. You can have the computer ask you how many times you want it to execute the loop. One is the GET command and is similar to INPUT.You can use the READ statement in your program to tell the computer to get a number or character(s) from the DATA statement.The same rules apply as for numeric data.Notice however, that since the computer is READing a string, numbers will be stored as a string of characters, not as a value which can be manipulated. You do not have to fill an array with as many numbers as you DIMensioned it for, but the computer will still reserve enough space for all of the positions in the array. What if you want the computer to jump to another part of the program, execute the statements in that section, then return to the point it left off and continue executing the program. The part of program that the computer jumps to and executes is. A variable or calculation should be after the ON command. After the GOTO or GOSUB command, there should be a list of line numbers. A 128 in location 2594 tells the computer to repeat these keys when you hold them down. Hold down the spacebar and watch the cursor move across the screen. For instance, the SQR (square) function is a mathematical function that returns the value of a specific number when it is raised to the second power—. What if you want to round off numbers to the nearest 0.01 ? Instead of adding 0.5 to your number, add 0.005, then multiply by 100. There are two functions associated with this concept that are very useful. The first is the ASC function. The rem aining four sections of this chapter describe com m ands that are unique to Com m odore 128 mode. Some Com m odore 128 mode com m ands provide capabilities that are not available in C64 mode. http://www.raumboerse-luzern.ch/mieten/elna-1200-user-manual

If you are familiar with programming in BASIC, you have probably encountered many situations in which you could have used these commands and statements. When the EXIT statement Is encountered, the program jumps to the next statement following the LOOP statement. The ELSE clause with IF-THEN The ELSE clause provides a way to tell the computer how to respond if the condition of the IF-THEN statement is false. It sets a minimum value for the loan using the ELSE clause with an IF- THEN statement, and sets up a dollar and cents format with PRINT USING. After you enter a line and press the RETURN key, the next line number appears, and the cursor is in the correct place for you to type the next statement. You can choose to have the computer number the commands with any increment;. Sometimes the messages are vague, however, and you still do not understand the problem. The Commodore 128 computer has several ways of helping you locate the problem. Help The Commodore 128 provides a HELP command that specifies the line in which a problem has occurred. Usually, the error- trapping function is set in the first line of a program: 5 TRAP 100 tells the computer that if an error occurs to go to a certain line (in this case, line 100). Using the WINDOW Command to Create a Window The Commodore 128 BASIC 7.0 language features a command. Using the ESC Key to Create a Window To set a window with the ESC (Escape) Key, follow these steps: 1. Move the cursor to the screen position you want as the top left corner of the window. You can switch normal and fast operation by using the FAST and SLOW commands. The FAST command places the Commodore in 2 MHz mode. The format of this command is: FAST The SLOW command returns the Commodore 128 to 1 MHz mode. HELP You press HELP. 10 PRONT “ COMMODORE COMPUTERS” The line with the mistake is high lighted in reverse if in 40 column output or under lined in 80 column output. This turns off scrolling until you press the NO SCROLL key again. http://eastwestrubbertrading.com/images/canton-as-22-manual.pdf

Caps Lock This key lets you type in all capital letters without using the SHIFT key. You can find further explanations of the BASIC language in the BASIC 7.0 Encyclopaedia in Chapter V. Each of the two screen formats available in C128 mode (40 columns and 80 columns) is controlled by a separate microprocessor chip. The 40-column chip is called the Video Interface Controller, or VIC for short. GRAPHICS PROGRAMMING ON THE C 128 This following section describes a step-by-step graphics programming example. As you learn each graphics command, add it to a program you will build as you read this section. The C128 can display text in both 40-column and 80-column screen formats. The second category of display mode is used for highly detailed graphics, such as pictures and intricate drawings. The final GRAPHIC command parameter is CLR. When you first issue a bit map graphic command, the Commodore 128 allocates. It reorganizes the Commodore 128 memory and gives you back the 9K of memory that was dedicated to the bit map-screen, so you can use it for other purposes. To draw a box, type: 80 BOX1,20,60,100,140,0,1 This draws a solid box to the left of the circle. To find out what the numbers in the box statement mean, consult Chapter V, BASIC 7.0 Encyclopaedia. Bit map mode uses a completely different area of memory to store the screen data than text mode (the mode in which you enter programs and text). Changing the size of Graphic Images—The SCALE Command The Commodore 128 has another graphics statement which offers additional power to your graphics system. The SCALE statement offers the ability to scale down (reduce) the size of graphic images on your screen. SPRITES: PROGRAMMABLE MOVABLE OBJECT BLOCKS You already have learned about some of the Commodore 128's exceptional graphics capabilities. You’ve learned how to use the first set of high-level graphics statements to draw circles, boxes, 6-16.

If you have worked with the Commodore 64, you already know something about sprites. For those of you who are not familiar with the subject, a sprite is a moveable object that you can form into any shape or image. Also, be sure to create the picture with the dimensions 24 pixels wide by 21 pixels tall, the size of a single sprite. The SSHAPE statement transforms the picture of the racing car into a data string that the computer interprets as picture data. The second number is the direction expressed as the number of degrees to move in the clockwise direction, relative to the original position of the sprite.You have just written your first sprite program. You have created a raceway with two racing cars. Try adding more cars and more objects on the screen. Experiment by drawing other sprites and include them in the raceway. You learned how to control the sprites, using the Commodore 128 sprite statements. The Commodore 128 has two other ways of creating sprites. Enter a number between 1 and 8. The computer displays the corresponding sprite in the upper right corner of the screen. From now on, we will refer to the sprite grid as the work area. Since you are now back in the control of the BASIC language, you have to turn on your sprite in order to see it on the screen. First, create the sprite, save the sprite data and exit from SPRDEF mode to BASIC. Next turn on your sprite with the SPRITE command. Move it with the MOVSPR command. This time, make the picture twice as large as a single sprite with the dimensions 48 pixels wide by 21 pixels tall. The program creates an outer space environment. It draws stars, a planet and a spacecraft similiar to Apollo. The front of the spaceship, the capsule, is stored in sprite 1. This time delay is necessary for the sprites to complete the two trips across the screen. If you leave out the delay, the sprites do not have enough time to move across the screen. Each sprite block is actually made up of 64 bytes; the extra byte is not used.

Since the Commodore 128 has eight sprites and each one consists of a 64- byte sprite block, the computer needs 512 (8 x 64) bytes to represent the data of all eight sprite images. This way, you can load any collection of sprites back into the Commodore 128 neatly and easily. Use this command to save your sprite data into a binary file: BSAVE “. The synthesizer, called the Sound Interface Device (SID), is a chip dedicated solely to generating sound and music. The SID chip is capable of producing three independent voices (sounds) simultaneously. The second parameter (FREQ) determines the frequency of the sound, which ranges from 0 through 65535. The third setting (DUR) specifies the amount of time the sound is played. This shows the direct relationship between the frequency setting and the actual frequency of the sound. As you increase the frequency setting, the Commodore 128 increases the pitch of the tone. Now try this statement: 40 SOUND 1, 0, 60 This shows that a FREQ value of 0 plays the lowest frequency (which is so low it is inaudible). Finally, try the white noise waveform (3). Substitute line 60 for this line: 60 SOUND 1,1,1,0,0, 0,3,0 Now the program loop plays the white noise generator for the entire range of frequencies. The program, when run, asks for each parameter, and then plays the sound. Here’s the program listing. Type it into your computer and RUN it. Lines 10 and 20 PRINT the introductory messages on the screen. Lines 30 through 50 INPUT the voice, frequency and duration parameters. Line 60 asks if you want to enter the optional SOUND parameters, such as the sweep settings and waveform. The 1 tells the computer to generate a new seed each time the command is encountered.The Commodore 128 can generate four types of waveforms: triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse and noise. See Figure 7-3 for a graphic representation of these four waveforms. See Figure 7- 4 for a graphical representation of ADSR. {-Variable.fc_1_url-

The Commodore 128 can change each ADSR parameter to 16 different rates. This gives you absolute flexibility over the envelope generator and the resulting properties of the volume when the sound is originated. It controls most of the musical qualities of the notes being played by the sound synthesizer. The Commodore 128 has 10 predefined envelopes for 10 different musical instruments, ln using the predefined envelopes you do not have to specify the ADSR parameters, waveform and pulse width settings—this is. The TEMPO Statement The next step in Commodore 128 music programming is controlling the tempo, or speed of your tune. The TEMPO statement does this for you. Here’s the format:. If you do not specify the TEMPO statement in your program, the Commodore 128 automatically sets the tempo to 8. Add this statement to your musical example program:. This gives you absolute control over each note and allows you to change synthesizer controls within a string of notes. The Commodore 128 automatically sets the synthesizer controls to the default settings in Figure 7-6. If you don’t assign special control characters, the SID chip can PLAY only one envelope, one voice and one octave without any FILTERing. Add notes of different duration by placing duration control characters in your PLAY string as follows: 70 PLAY “ MV2O6T0U7X0HCDQEFIGASB” Line 70 PLAYs voice 2 in octave 6 at volume level 7 with the redefined piano envelope (0) on and filter turned off. First you should become comfortable with generating the sound and worry about FILTERing last. Since the SID chip has only one filter, it applies to all three voices. All the ones below it are filtered out. See Figure 7-8. The high-pass filter produces tinny, hollow sounds. Figure 7-8. High-pass Filter The band-pass filter allows a range of frequencies partially above and below the cutoff frequency to pass through the SID chip. The resonance is the peaking effect of the sound wave frequency as it approaches the cutoff frequency.

The resonance determines the sharpness and clearness of a sound: the higher the resonance, the sharper the sound. Notice the difference between the low- pass and band-pass filters. Change line 45 again to: 45 FILTER 1200, 0,0,1,10 Reset the sound chip and RUN your example program again. Line 15 sets the VOLume to 8. Line 20 chooses the TEMPO to be 10. You can combine your Commodore 128 Music synthesizer with C128 mode graphics to make your own videos or “ movies”, complete with sound tracks. For those of you who cannot read music, Figure 7-11 shows how a typical musical staff is arranged and how the notes on the staff are related to the keys on a piano. Write down the upper staff notes on a piece of paper. Now write down the notes for the lower staff. You must give the computer time to play the longer note first, then PLAY the notes of shorter duration, or else the composition will not be synchronized. You could even use both in a single program. Each screen size has special uses. The 40-column screen is the same size screen the Commodore 64 uses. With the 40-column screen you can use the Commodore 128’s full graphics capabilities. You can draw circles, graphs, sprite characters, boxes and other shapes in high-resolution or multicolor graphic modes. Since the width of a normal printed page is 80 columns, an 80-column wordprocessor can display information on the screen exactly as that information will appear on paper. The message “ CHANGE TO 40 COLUMN TO VIEW GRAPH” would tell the user to switch modes and see the results.The following chapter tells you how to use the Com m odore 128 in C64 mode. You can use the BASIC 2.0 commands in both C128 and C64 modes. Refer to Sections 3 and 4 in Chapter 2 for a description of these commands. To do this, you need to use the GET statement. (See Section 4 for a description of the GET statement.) As an example, the program below prepares the F1 key to print a message on the screen. 10 ? “.

To do this you need either a Commodore disk drive or the Commodore Datassette. The PROGRAM NAME can be anything you want it to be. Note that you must enclose the PROGRAM NAME in quotation marks. Note that when you load the directory, any program that was in memory is erased. INITIALIZING A DISK DRIVE If the disk drive’s ready light is blinking, it indicates a disk error. You can restore the disk drive to the condition it was in before the error occurred by using a procedure called INITIALIZING. S o r t i n g Directory. D i r e c t o r y for Drive A: User Name Bytes. The prompt also tells you that drive A is your default drive. Many utilities require unique command tails. A command tail cannot contain more than 128 characters.Commodore DOS normally uses Group Code Recording (GCR). The Commodore 1571 disk drive can read both, but the older 1541 can only read GCR.These also provide the information that will be needed for installing other programs, although not all packages ask the same questions. Terminal name Commodore 128 Screen size Screen height Screen width Cursor positioning. Most Commodore printers require installation as a Standard Printer with NO Communications Protocol and Primary list device as the Printer Driver. NOTE: The h against the numbers above indicates that they are hexademical numbers (using base 16 instead of the decimal base 10). A file specification can have four parts: a drive specifier, a filename, a filetype, and a password. The only mandatory part is the filename. Drive Specifier The drive specifier is a single letter (A-P) followed by a colon. The password can be from one to eight characters. If you include a password, separate it from the. It tells how to start and stop console and printer output, and edit commands you enter at your console.You can use the control characters to edit command lines or input lines to most programs. Has the same effect as a RETURN or a CTRL-M keystroke. CTRL-K Deletes from the cursor to the end of the line. DIRSYS Displays filenames of files marked with the SYS (system) attribute in the directory. ERASE Erases a filename from the disk directory and releases the storage space occupied by the file. Creates and alters ASCII files. ERASE Used for wildcard erase. Clears data from previously used disks. GENCOM Creates a special COM file with attached RSX file. Temporarily gets console input from a disk file rather than the keyboard. The following examples illustrate some of the capabilities offered by GET and PUT. You can enter a sequence of commands at the system prompt, or you can put a frequently needed sequence of commands in a disk file, using a filetype of SUB. Any key on the keyboard can be defined to generate a code or. Each key has four possible definitions: Normal, Alpha Shift, Shift, and Control. After entering this mode a small box appears on the bottom of the screen. To obtain a copy of this, refer to book, the coupon enclosed in the box in which the Commodore 128 is supplied. 15-6. They are the central part of a command or statement, and they tell the computer what kind of action to take. These words cannot be used as variable names. A complete list of reserved words and symbols is given in Section 20. COMMAS (,) COLONS (:) and SEMICOLONS (;) These MUST be included, they are required parts of the command or statement. If other parameters which require commas are omitted the commas should be ommitted too.AUTO 50 Automatically numbers lines in increments of 50. AUTO Turns off automatic line numbering. BACKUP Copy the entire contents from one disk to another on a dual disk drive.The default bank is 15. Here is a table of available BANK configurations in the Commodore 128 memory:. Here is the format: IF Condition THEN BEGIN: statement statement statement BEND: ELSE BEGIN statement. Execution begins at the start address of the program (ie where it starts loading).BOX 1,10, 10, 60, 60, 45,1 Draws a painted, rotated box (a diamond). BOX, 30, 90,, 45,1 Draws a filled, rotated polygon. Any parameter can be omitted but you must include a comma in its place, as in the last two examples. BSAVE “ PROGRAM.SCR”,D0,U9,BO,P3182 to P8000 Saves the binary file named “ PROGRAM.SCR” in the memory address range 3182 through 7999 (BANK 0) on drive 0, unit 9. CATALOG Displays the disk directory. Character data is read from the Commodore 128 character ROM area. The user supplies the x and y coordinates of the starting position and the text string to be displayed. This command is useful for printing headings at the top of program listings. CMD 1 All normal output now goes to the printer. LIST The LISTing goes to the printer, not the screen—even the word READY. When the subroutine terminates (it must end with a RETURN), BASIC will resume processing where it left off. Interrupt action continues until a COLLISION of the same type without a line number is specified. Color Code Color Color Color Code Black Orange White Brown Light Red Cyan Dark Gray Medium Gray Purple Green Light Green. Also see the RESTORE statement, which allows the Commodore 128 to reREAD data.If no logical file number is specified, all currently open files are closed. The default device number is 8. Note the following examples: EXAMPLES: DCLOSE Closes all files currently open on unit 8. Use the COMMODORE key to slow down the display. The DIRECTORY command should not be used to print a hard copy because some printers interfere with the data coming from the disk drive. If no UNTIL or WHILE modifies either the DO or the LOOP statement, execution of the statements in between continues indefinitely. If an EXIT statement is encountered in the body of a DO loop, execution is transferred to the first statement following the LOOP statement. The default drive number is 0 and the default device number is 8. The Commodore 128 has initialized the following 10 envelopes: 17-29. You can use more than one type of filter at a time. The start value and the end value are the beginning and ending counts for the loop variable.Using a STEP increment of.5 is used to illustrate the fact that floating point indices are valid. See also the NEXT statement. Receive input data from the keyboard, one character at a time without waiting for a key to be pressed. GETKEY variable list The GETKEY statement is very similar to the GET statement. Unlike the GET statement, GETKEY if there is no character in the keyboard buffer will wait for the user to type a character on the keyboard. When a line with a RETURN statement is encountered, the program jumps back to the statement immediately following the GOSUB statement. The s parameter indicates the starting line number of the split screen when in graphic mode 2 or 4 (multicolor or standard bit map split screen modes). Press the “ Y ” key to perform the HEADER, or press any other key to cancel it. When an ELSE clause is present, it is executed only when the expression is false.The Commodore 128 allows you to perform a function or operation for each time the specified function key is pressed. The definition assigned to a key can consist of data, or a command or series of commands. If the word LIST is followed by a line number, the Commodore 128 shows only that line number. If LIST is typed with two numbers separated by a dash all lines from the first to the second line number are displayed. And if LIST is typed with a dash, then a number, all lines from the beginning of the program to that line number are LISTed. A relocate flag of 0 tells the Commodore 128 to load the program at the start of the BASIC program area. A flag of 1 tells the computer to LOAD from the point where it was SAVEd. The LOAD command can be used within a BASIC program to find and RUN the next program on a tape or disk. MOVSPR Position or move sprite on the screen MOVSPR number,x1,y1 Place the specified sprite at absolute coordinate x,y (scaled). The NEW command also can be used as a statement in a BASIC program. However, when the Commodore 128 gets to this line, the program is erased and everything stops. Device number 0 is the Commodore 128 keyboard; 1 is the cassette recorder; 3 is the Commodore 128 screen, 4-7 are normally the printer(s); and 8-11 are reserved for disk drives. It is often a good idea to use the same file number as the device number because it makes it easy to remember which is which. The keyword POKE is always followed by two parameters. The first is a location inside the Commodore 128 memory, this can be a value from 0 to 65535. The second parameter is a value from 0 to 255, which is placed in the location, replacing any value that was there previously. Variable names have the value they contain (either a number or a string) printed. Functions also have their number values printed. Punctuation marks are used to help format the data neatly on the screen. There can be only one decimal point in any format field. If a decimal point is not specified in the format field, the value is rounded to the nearest integer and printed without decimal places. PUDEF only affects numeric formats i.e. The increment is the interval between line numbers, (i.e., 10, 20, 30, etc.);. If you only have a 40 column display use FAST:RENUMBER.... RUN clears all variables in the program before starting program execution. If there is a number following the RUN command, execution starts at that line number. To give your program a name simply enclose the chosen name in quotes (or use a string variable) immediately after typing SAVE. A filename can be up to 16 characters. NOTE: When SAVEing to disk you must specify a filename or you will get a MISSING FILE NAME ERROR. SAVE “”,1,3 Stores on tape, with no name, places an EOT marker after the program, does not allow the program to be relocated on loading.Type a Y to perform the SCRATCH or press any other key to cancel the operation. The direction of the sweep is back and forth (oscillating).Commodore key(1 -8) Selects sprite foreground color (9-16). STOP key Cancels changes and returns to prompt. SHIFT RETURN Saves sprite in memory and returns to SPRITE NUMBER? prompt. It can also transfer the data from the sprite storage area into a string variable. The relocate flag is the same as in the LOAD command. It verifies the program from the memory location from which it was SAVEd. (See also DVERIFY.) EXAMPLES: VERIFY Checks the next program on the tape. The second example will WAIT until the SHIFT key is pressed and then released. The third example will WAIT until either bit 7 (128) is on or bit 4 (16) is off. 17-84. Also clears the portion of the screen within the window as specified by the 1. NOTE: If you specify a column greater than 39 on a 40 column display you will get an “. Each function description is followed by an EXAMPLE. The lines appearing in bold face in the examples are the functions you type in. EXAMPLE: PRINT ATN (3) 1.24904577 BUMP Return sprite collision information BUMP (N) To determine which sprites have collided since the last check, use the BUMP function. BUMP(1) records which sprites have collided with each other and BUMP(2) records which sprites have collided with other objects on the screen. Return cosine for angle of X radians COS(X) This function returns the value of the cosine of X, where X is an angle measured in radians. EXAMPLE: PRINT COS ( Return decimal value of hexadecimal number string. To find the JOY value, add the direction value of the joystick plus 128, if the JOY fire button is pressed. The direction. If the length argument is left out, all characters to the right of the starting position are returned.Any value of 256 or more means that the fire button is also depressed. The length of the substring is defined by the length argument which can be any integer in the range of 0 to 255. No SPaCes are printed on the following line.